On 3rd January 106 BC, Marcus Tullius Cicero, the Roman lawyer, politician, philosopher, and orator, was born in Arpinum (Arpino), Italy. Cicero’s legacy as a defender of the Roman Republic and a master of rhetoric has endured for centuries.
Cicero’s equestrian-class background provided him with an exceptional education in Greek philosophy, Roman law, and Latin literature. His brilliance as a student and effectiveness as an orator propelled him to rapid political success. Remarkably, Cicero became the youngest individual to achieve the rank of consul, the Republic’s highest office, without belonging to a noble family.
His political career reached its peak during his consulship in 63 BC. Cicero thwarted the Catiline Conspiracy, a plot led by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Republic with foreign armed support. His swift actions and powerful speeches, collectively known as the Catilinarian Orations, solidified his reputation as one of Rome’s greatest statesmen.
A Turning Point: Exile and Writing
Cicero’s staunch opposition to the First Triumvirate, the secret alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, led to his political downfall. Tribune Publius Clodius passed a law targeting Cicero for executing conspirators without trial during the Catiline crisis. Cicero fled into exile in Thessalonica.
During this period, Cicero turned to writing. His works on philosophy, politics, and rhetoric, including On the Republic (De Republica), On Duties (De Officiis), and On the Orator (De Oratore), became foundational texts in Western thought. These writings preserved his vision of a balanced government, rooted in justice and liberty, and influenced thinkers from the Renaissance to the modern era.
Also read: On this day in History: Assassination of Julius Caesar
A Legal and Oratorical Genius
Before his political prominence, Cicero earned fame as a lawyer willing to take on high-risk cases. His first major success was defending Sextus Roscius against charges of parricide, exposing corruption among allies of the dictator Sulla. His victory demonstrated not only his legal acumen but also his courage in challenging powerful figures.
Cicero’s speeches, written with unparalleled clarity and style, became models of persuasive oratory. Works like Pro Milone and Philippicae showcase his ability to sway public opinion and articulate complex arguments.
Centuries later, Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch rediscovered Cicero’s works, hailing him as a model of intellectual and moral integrity. His writings shaped the principles of governance, justice, and liberty, which remain cornerstones of modern political thought.
Death of Cicero
Cicero met a brutal end during the proscriptions initiated by the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, modelled after Sulla’s infamous campaign of 82 BC. Despite Octavian arguing for two days to spare him, Cicero was marked as an enemy of the state, alongside his supporters and contacts.
On 7 December 43 BC, soldiers captured Cicero near his villa in Formiae as he attempted to flee to Macedonia by sea. Though his slaves denied his whereabouts, Philologus, a freedman of Cicero’s brother, Quintus betrayed his location. Surrounded by his killers, Herennius and Popilius, Cicero accepted his fate with stoic dignity.
According to Seneca the Elder, his final words, as recorded by historian Aufidius Bassus, were: “I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck.” Bowing his head and baring his neck, Cicero offered no resistance, ensuring a swift execution.
Herennius delivered the fatal blow, then severed Cicero’s head. By Mark Antony’s orders, his hands, authors of the scathing Philippics, were also cut off. These, along with his head, were displayed on the Rostra in the Roman Forum, a grim tradition reserved for Rome’s most notorious enemies.
A chilling final act of vengeance came from Antony’s wife, Fulvia, who allegedly pulled out Cicero’s tongue and stabbed it with a hairpin, symbolising her hatred for his eloquent oratory. Cicero’s death marked the end of his steadfast defence of the Republic.
Recommended Read
Collecting the most incisive and influential writings of one of Rome’s finest orators, Cicero’s Selected Works is translated with an introduction by Michael Grant in Penguin Classics.
This selection demonstrates the diversity of his writings, and includes letters to friends and statesmen on Roman life and politics; the vitriolic Second Philippic Against Antony; and his two most famous philosophical treatises, On Duties and On Old Age – a celebration of his own declining years.
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