Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj on 6 May, 1574, in Rome, led the Catholic Church from 1644 until his death on 7 January, 1655. His papacy was marked by significant political manoeuvres and controversies that left a lasting impact on the Church and European politics.
Coming from a prominent family with roots in Gubbio, Umbria, Pamphilj pursued legal studies at the Collegio Romano, earning a degree in jurisprudence at twenty. His ecclesiastical career advanced under the patronage of his uncle, Girolamo Pamphilj, leading to roles such as auditor of the Roman Rota and nuncio to the Kingdom of Naples. In 1627, he was elevated to cardinal by Pope Urban VIII.
In 1644, after a protracted conclave influenced by Franco-Spanish rivalries, Pamphilj was elected pope, adopting the name Innocent X. His papacy began with a notable conflict against the Barberini family, allies of his predecessor, Urban VIII. Accusing them of financial improprieties, Innocent X initiated legal actions that led the Barberini brothers to seek refuge in France. There they gained the protection of Cardinal Mazarin.
In response, Innocent X confiscated their assets and issued a decree stating that cardinals absent from the Papal States for more than six months without explicit papal approval would lose their benefices and, ultimately, their cardinal status.
France rejected the decree, and tensions escalated when Mazarin threatened to deploy troops to Italy. Faced with this pressure, Innocent X softened his stance on France and eventually rehabilitated the Barberini brothers.
Condemnation of Jansenism
Innocent X’s tenure was also marked by his condemnation of Jansenism, a theological movement emphasising predestination and human depravity. In 1653, he issued the papal bull “Cum Occasione,” condemning five propositions associated with Jansenist thought.
Politically, Innocent X’s decisions had significant ramifications. He refused to recognise Portugal’s independence from Spain, aligning the papacy with Spanish interests. Additionally, his involvement in the Wars of Castro led to the destruction of the city of Castro in 1649, following conflicts with the Farnese family.
A notable aspect of Innocent X’s papacy was the influence of his sister-in-law, Olimpia Maidalchini. Contemporaries and historians often viewed her as the power behind the papal throne. They alleged she wielded significant control over papal decisions and appointments. This perception contributed to criticisms of nepotism and corruption within the papal court.
Culturally, Innocent X is immortalised in Diego Velázquez’s portrait, renowned for its vivid realism and the pope’s stern expression. This masterpiece remains a significant work in art history.
Pope Innocent X’s papacy was a complex era characterised by political intrigue, theological disputes, and personal controversies.
